Bolt [![Build Status](https://drone.io/github.com/boltdb/bolt/status.png)](https://drone.io/github.com/boltdb/bolt/latest) [![Coverage Status](https://coveralls.io/repos/boltdb/bolt/badge.png?branch=master)](https://coveralls.io/r/boltdb/bolt?branch=master) [![GoDoc](https://godoc.org/github.com/boltdb/bolt?status.png)](https://godoc.org/github.com/boltdb/bolt) ![Project status](http://img.shields.io/status/beta.png?color=blue) ==== > Simple is the new beautiful. > > — [Tobias Lütke](https://twitter.com/tobi) ## Overview Bolt is a pure Go key/value store inspired by [Howard Chu's][hyc_symas] and the [LMDB project][lmdb]. The goal of the project is to provide a simple, fast, and reliable database for projects that don't require a full database server such as Postgres or MySQL. It is also meant to be educational. Most of us use tools without understanding how the underlying data really works. Bolt is written so that it's easy to dig in and see what's going on. Since Bolt is meant to be used as such a low-level piece of functionality, simplicity is key. The API will be small and only focus on getting values and setting values. That's it. [hyc_symas]: https://twitter.com/hyc_symas [lmdb]: http://symas.com/mdb/ ## Project Status Bolt is functionally complete and has nearly full unit test coverage. The library test suite also includes randomized black box testing to ensure database consistency and thread safety. Bolt is currently in use in many projects, however, it is still at a beta stage so please use with caution and report any bugs found. ## Getting Started ### Installing To start using Bolt, install Go and run `go get`: ```sh $ go get github.com/boltdb/bolt/... ``` This will retrieve the library and install the `bolt` command line utility into your `$GOBIN` path. ### Opening a database The top-level object in Bolt is a `DB`. It is represented as a single file on your disk and represents a consistent snapshot of your data. To open your database, simply use the `bolt.Open()` function: ```go package main import ( "log" "github.com/boltdb/bolt" ) func main() { // Open the my.db data file in your current directory. // It will be created if it doesn't exist. db, err := bolt.Open("my.db", 0600, nil) if err != nil { log.Fatal(err) } defer db.Close() ... } ``` Please note that Bolt obtains a file lock on the data file so multiple processes cannot open the same database at the same time. Opening an already open Bolt database will cause it to hang until the other process closes it. To prevent an indefinite wait you can pass a timeout option to the `Open()` function: ```go db, err := bolt.Open("my.db", 0600, &bolt.Options{Timeout: 1 * time.Second}) ``` ### Transactions Bolt allows only one read-write transaction at a time but allows as many read-only transactions as you want at a time. Each transaction has a consistent view of the data as it existed when the transaction started. Individual transactions and all objects created from them (e.g. buckets, keys) are not thread safe. To work with data in multiple goroutines you must start a transaction for each one or use locking to ensure only one goroutine accesses a transaction at a time. Creating transaction from the `DB` is thread safe. #### Read-write transactions To start a read-write transaction, you can use the `DB.Update()` function: ``` err := db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { ... return nil }) ``` Inside the closure, you have a consistent view of the database. You commit the transaction by returning `nil` at the end. You can also rollback the transaction at any point by returning an error. All database operations are allowed inside a read-write transaction. Always check the return error as it will report any disk failures that can cause your transaction to not complete. If you return an error within your closure it will be passed through. #### Read-only transactions To start a read-only transaction, you can use the `DB.View()` function: ``` err := db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { ... return nil }) ``` You also get a consistent view of the database within this closure, however, no mutating operations are allowed within a read-only transaction. You can only retrieve buckets, retrieve values, and copy the database within a read-only transaction. ### Using buckets Buckets are collections of key/value pairs within the database. All keys in a bucket must be unique. You can create a bucket using the `DB.CreateBucket()` function: ```go db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { b, err := tx.CreateBucket([]byte("MyBucket")) if err != nil { return fmt.Errorf("create bucket: %s", err) } return nil }) ``` You can also create a bucket only if it doesn't exist by using the `Tx.CreateBucketIfNotExists()` function. It's a common pattern to call this function for all your top-level buckets after you open your database so you can guarentee that they exist for future transactions. To delete a bucket, simply call the `Tx.DeleteBucket()` function. ### Using key/value pairs To save a key/value pair to a bucket, use the `Bucket.Put()` function: ```go db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { b := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")) err := b.Put([]byte("answer"), []byte("42")) return err }) ``` This will set the value of the `"answer"` key to `"42"` in the `MyBucket` bucket. To retrieve this value, we can use the `Bucket.Get()` function: ```go db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { b := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")) v := b.Get([]byte("answer")) fmt.Printf("The answer is: %s\n", v) return nil }) ``` The `Get()` function does not return an error because its operation is guarenteed to work (unless there is some kind of system failure). If the key exists then it will return its byte slice value. If it doesn't exist then it will return `nil`. It's important to note that you can have a zero-length value set to a key which is different than the key not existing. Use the `Bucket.Delete()` function to delete a key from the bucket. ### Iterating over keys Bolt stores its keys in byte-sorted order within a bucket. This makes sequential iteration over these keys extremely fast. To iterate over keys we'll use a `Cursor`: ```go db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { b := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")) c := b.Cursor() for k, v := c.First(); k != nil; k, v = c.Next() { fmt.Printf("key=%s, value=%s\n", k, v) } return nil }) ``` The cursor allows you to move to a specific point in the list of keys and move forward or backward through the keys one at a time. The following functions are available on the cursor: ``` First() Move to the first key. Last() Move to the last key. Seek() Move to a specific key. Next() Move to the next key. Prev() Move to the previous key. ``` When you have iterated to the end of the cursor then `Next()` will return `nil`. You must seek to a position using `First()`, `Last()`, or `Seek()` before calling `Next()` or `Prev()`. If you do not seek to a position then these functions will return `nil`. #### Prefix scans To iterate over a key prefix, you can combine `Seek()` and `bytes.HasPrefix()`: ```go db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { c := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")).Cursor() prefix := []byte("1234") for k, v := c.Seek(prefix); bytes.HasPrefix(k, prefix); k, v = c.Next() { fmt.Printf("key=%s, value=%s\n", k, v) } return nil }) ``` #### Range scans Another common use case is scanning over a range such as a time range. If you use a sortable time encoding such as RFC3339 then you can query a specific date range like this: ```go db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { // Assume our events bucket has RFC3339 encoded time keys. c := tx.Bucket([]byte("Events")).Cursor() // Our time range spans the 90's decade. min := []byte("1990-01-01T00:00:00Z") max := []byte("2000-01-01T00:00:00Z") // Iterate over the 90's. for k, v := c.Seek(min); k != nil && bytes.Compare(k, max) != -1; k, v = c.Next() { fmt.Printf("%s: %s\n", k, v) } return nil }) ``` #### ForEach() You can also use the function `ForEach()` if you know you'll be iterating over all the keys in a bucket: ```go db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { b := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")) b.ForEach(func(k, v []byte) error { fmt.Printf("key=%s, value=%s\n", k, v) return nil }) return nil }) ``` ### Nested buckets You can also store a bucket in a key to create nested buckets. The API is the same as the bucket management API on the `DB` object: ``` func (*Bucket) CreateBucket(key []byte) (*Bucket, error) func (*Bucket) CreateBucketIfNotExists(key []byte) (*Bucket, error) func (*Bucket) DeleteBucket(key []byte) error ``` ### Database backups Bolt is a single file so it's easy to backup. You can use the `Tx.Copy()` function to write a consistent view of the database to a writer. If you call this from a read-only transaction, it will perform a hot backup and not block your other database reads and writes. It will also use `O_DIRECT` when available to prevent page cache trashing. One common use case is to backup over HTTP so you can use tools like `cURL` to do database backups: ```go func BackupHandleFunc(w http.ResponseWriter, req *http.Request) { err := db.View(func(tx bolt.Tx) error { w.Header().Set("Content-Type", "application/octet-stream") w.Header().Set("Content-Disposition", `attachment; filename="my.db"`) w.Header().Set("Content-Length", strconv.Itoa(int(tx.Size()))) return tx.Copy(w) }) if err != nil { http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusInternalServerError) } } ``` Then you can backup using this command: ```sh $ curl http://localhost/backup > my.db ``` Or you can open your browser to `http://localhost/backup` and it will download automatically. If you want to backup to another file you can use the `Tx.CopyFile()` helper function. ### Statistics The database keeps a running count of many of the internal operations it performs so you can better understand what's going on. By grabbing a snapshot of these stats at two points in time we can see what operations were performed in that time range. For example, we could start a goroutine to log stats every 10 seconds: ``` go func() { // Grab the initial stats. prev := db.Stats() for { // Wait for 10s. time.Sleep(10 * time.Second) // Grab the current stats and diff them. stats := db.Stats() diff := stats.Sub(&prev) // Encode stats to JSON and print to STDERR. json.NewEncoder(os.Stderr).Encode(diff) // Save stats for the next loop. prev = stats } } }() ``` It's also useful to pipe these stats to a service such as statsd for monitoring or to provide an HTTP endpoint that will perform a fixed-length sample. ## Resources For more information on getting started with Bolt, check out the following articles: * [Intro to BoltDB: Painless Performant Persistence](http://blog.natefinch.com/2014/07/intro-to-boltdb-painless-performant.html) by [Nate Finch](https://github.com/natefinch). ## Comparing Bolt to LMDB Bolt was originally a port of LMDB so it is architecturally similar. Both use a B+tree, have ACID semanetics with fully serializable transactions, and support lock-free MVCC using a single writer and multiple readers. The two projects have somewhat diverged. LMDB heavily focuses on raw performance while Bolt has focused on simplicity and ease of use. For example, LMDB allows several unsafe actions such as direct writes and append writes for the sake of performance. Bolt opts to disallow actions which can leave the database in a corrupted state. The only exception to this in Bolt is `DB.NoSync`. ## Other Projects Using Bolt Below is a list of public, open source projects that use Bolt: * [Bazil](https://github.com/bazillion/bazil) - A file system that lets your data reside where it is most convenient for it to reside. * [DVID](https://github.com/janelia-flyem/dvid) - Added Bolt as optional storage engine and testing it against Basho-tuned leveldb. * [Skybox Analytics](https://github.com/skybox/skybox) - A standalone funnel analysis tool for web analytics. * [Scuttlebutt](https://github.com/benbjohnson/scuttlebutt) - Uses Bolt to store and process all Twitter mentions of GitHub projects. * [Wiki](https://github.com/peterhellberg/wiki) - A tiny wiki using Goji, BoltDB and Blackfriday. * [ChainStore](https://github.com/nulayer/chainstore) - Simple key-value interface to a variety of storage engines organized as a chain of operations. * [MetricBase](https://github.com/msiebuhr/MetricBase) - Single-binary version of Graphite. * [Gitchain](https://github.com/gitchain/gitchain) - Decentralized, peer-to-peer Git repositories aka "Git meets Bitcoin". * [SkyDB](https://github.com/skydb/sky) - Behavioral analytics database. * [event-shuttle](https://github.com/sclasen/event-shuttle) - A Unix system service to collect and reliably deliver messages to Kafka. * [ipxed](https://github.com/kelseyhightower/ipxed) - Web interface and api for ipxed. * [BoltStore](https://github.com/yosssi/boltstore) - Session store using Bolt. * [photosite/session](http://godoc.org/bitbucket.org/kardianos/photosite/session) - Sessions for a photo viewing site. If you are using Bolt in a project please send a pull request to add it to the list.